Narrative theory, as applied to theology, emphasizes the power of story as the primary framework for understanding religious beliefs, practices, and experiences.

Instead of focusing solely on abstract doctrines or isolated propositions, narrative theology draws attention to the lived, unfolding story of the Christian tradition, as found in Scripture and the collective memory of religious communities.

Christian theology, for example, is increasingly understood as participation in an ongoing “meta-story” or “theodrama”—the account of God’s dynamic relationship with humanity, traced from creation, through Israel, to Jesus, and onward into the life of the Church.​

This approach resists reducing scripture and doctrine to a catalogue of rules or mere historical statements. Rather, it suggests that meaning arises within the narrative context: Parables, biographical arcs, and canonical histories do more than convey facts; they shape identity, inspire imagination, and invite participation in the continuing story of faith.

For narrative theologians, theological method is inseparable from narrative itself; interpretation becomes an act of storytelling, rich in symbols and metaphors.

Meaning is negotiated through the unfolding of shared symbols, rituals, and even conflicts, which—like chapters in a book—draw followersl into greater understanding and transformation. ​

Critically, narrative theology does not dismiss systematic or propositional theology but reframes them. Propositions and doctrines, in this view, serve to clarify and deepen the story, but cannot replace it.

In methodological terms, narrative invites theologians to ask: What stories are told? Whose voices are heard? How do these shape our understanding of the divine, the world, and ourselves?

Mythopoesis & Narrative

Mythopoesis, the art of creating myths to convey meaning, is central to understanding the theological methods of ancient Christianity and offers profound implications for modern theology. 

Mythopoesis, derived from the Greek terms mythos (story) and poiesis (making), refers to the construction of symbolic narratives that convey profound existential truths about human life, the divine, and the cosmos. 

Unlike scientific or historical discourse, which seeks empirical precision, mythopoesis operates in the realm of imagination and meaning, employing metaphors, allegories, and narratives to convey realities that exceed literal description. 

For early Christians, theology was an art of meaning-making through mythopoetic forms, and a modern theological methodology must reclaim this approach.

Mythopoesis conveys existential meaning, not scientific or historical fact. For example, most biblical stories were never meant to be historical reports in the modern sense; they were crafted to evoke awe, inspire the imagination, and orient believers toward a particular meaning. 

The ancients understood that truths about divinity, sacred reality, or human destiny required the symbolic language of myth, not the propositional clarity of scientific reasoning, which they did not possess anyway. 

This method allowed early Christians to engage diverse Jewish, Greek, and Roman cultures by speaking to universal human experiences through shared symbolic frameworks.

For example, consider the Garden of Eden described in the Book of Genesis. Were the ancient authors referencing an actual location and a real garden? If we could go back in time and have a conversation with ancient Jews, much of our manner of reasoning and resulting questions would make little sense to them. “How big was the garden?” Or “Where was the garden located?” Such questions would have made no sense to an ancient interlocutor. 

Why? Because the garden was a symbol and/or metaphor for a state of being related to the human condition. It may also have been a reference to hunter-gatherer culture. The lack of an actual Garden of Eden wouldn’t have troubled an ancient listener. The empirical factual situations were besides the point of the myth and its meaning. 

Modern theology must reintegrate this approach, recognizing that we, too, must do theology as an art of meaning-making. Perhaps more importantly, we should avoid interpreting ancient mythopoesis in the manner of post-Enlightenment reasoning. 

In a post-secular age, where science dominates factual inquiry, theology’s role is not to assert empirical claims as much as to address existential questions, such as purpose, the meaning of suffering, and hope, through symbolic and narrative forms. 

By embracing mythopoesis, theology becomes a creative, dialogical practice, offering meaning in a fragmented world, just as the ancients did through their sacred stories.

Critical biblical methods refer to a range of scholarly approaches used to interpret the Bible by examining its historical, literary, cultural, and theological contexts.

These methods include textual criticism (analyzing ancient manuscripts to reconstruct the original text), source criticism (identifying underlying sources used by biblical authors), form criticism (studying the literary forms and genres of biblical passages), redaction criticism (investigating how editors shaped the final text), and socio-historical criticism (exploring the social and historical background of the text).

Additional approaches, such as narrative analysis, rhetorical criticism, and contextual methods (including feminist, liberationist, and postcolonial readings), further enrich the interpretive process by focusing on how stories are told, the author’s intent, and the impact of the text on marginalized groups.​

Critical biblical methods differ fundamentally from literalism, which insists on a strictly word-for-word, surface-level reading of the Bible, often treating every passage as a direct, factual statement or command.

Literalism tends to ignore the historical, cultural, and literary context of the text, and may overlook figurative language, genre, and the evolving nature of biblical interpretation over time.

In contrast, critical methods recognize that the Bible is a complex collection of diverse genres—poetry, parable, history, prophecy, and more—each requiring different interpretive strategies. These methods seek to uncover the original meaning of the text, as well as its ongoing relevance, by asking questions about authorship, audience, historical setting, and literary form.​

Critical biblical interpretation also values the role of reason, evidence, and dialogue, inviting readers to engage with the text in a way that is both intellectually honest and spiritually meaningful.

It acknowledges that understanding the Bible is not a static process but an ongoing conversation shaped by new discoveries, changing contexts, and diverse perspectives. By contrast, literalism often resists such dialogue, favoring a fixed, unchanging interpretation that may not account for the richness and complexity of the biblical witness.

Historical Jesus scholarship is a rigorous academic discipline focused on reconstructing the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth using historical-critical methods.

Rather than relying solely on theological or creedal interpretations, scholars in this field apply the same tools used in other historical studies—textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism—to analyze the New Testament and related sources.

The goal is to sift through the layers of tradition, theology, and later interpretation to identify what can be reasonably attributed to the historical Jesus himself.​

A central feature of historical Jesus methodology is the use of “criteria of authenticity.”

These include the criterion of dissimilarity (a saying or action is more likely historical if it differs from both Jewish and early Christian norms), the criterion of embarrassment (details that would have been awkward for the early church are more likely to be authentic), and the criterion of multiple attestation (if a tradition appears in several independent sources, it is more likely to be historical).

Scholars also consider the plausibility of events within the historical and cultural context of first-century Palestine, and increasingly, they draw on social memory theory, which examines how traditions about Jesus were shaped and transmitted by early communities.​

John Dominic Crossan, Stephen J. Patterson, and John P. Meier are three outstanding figures in this field.

Crossan, a leading voice in the “Third Quest,” emphasizes the importance of social context and the use of cross-cultural comparisons, arguing that Jesus should be understood as a radical social prophet whose teachings challenged the status quo.

Patterson, known for his work on the Jesus Seminar, has contributed to the development and critique of the criteria of authenticity, highlighting both their strengths and limitations.

Meier, in his monumental series A Marginal Jew, employs a meticulous, evidence-based approach, carefully weighing each tradition against the criteria and the broader historical record to build a portrait of Jesus as a first-century Jewish teacher.​

These scholars, among others, have helped shape a field that values careful, interdisciplinary research and open dialogue, recognizing that the quest for the historical Jesus is both a scholarly and a spiritual endeavor.

Their work demonstrates that historical Jesus scholarship is about understanding the roots of Christian tradition in the context of history.

Personalism is a philosophical and theological movement that places the human person at the center of moral, social, and spiritual reflection.

In its Catholic strands, personalism affirms the inherent dignity of every individual, emphasizing that each person is willed by God for their own sake and not merely as a means to an end.

This perspective is deeply rooted in the Second Vatican Council’s teaching, especially in the document Gaudium et spes, which declares that “man is the only creature on earth that God willed for its own sake and he cannot fully find himself except through a sincere gift of himself”.​

Catholic personalism refocuses theology on the dignity and uniqueness of the human person, seeing each individual as a subject of love, freedom, and relationality. It insists that persons are not to be used or reduced to objects, but must be respected and loved as ends in themselves.

This approach shapes Christian ethics, social teaching, and spirituality, encouraging a vision of society where every person’s rights, needs, and potential are honored. Personalism also highlights the relational nature of the human person—our identity and fulfillment are found not in isolation, but in authentic relationships with others and with God.​

In Catholic thought, personalism is closely tied to the concept of the imago Dei—the belief that humans are created in the image and likeness of God. This means that every person bears a unique reflection of divine dignity and is called to a life of love, self-giving, and communion.

Personalism thus becomes a foundation for affirming human rights, promoting social justice, and resisting ideologies that dehumanize or instrumentalize individuals.​

By centering theology on the person, Catholic personalism offers a powerful antidote to both collectivism and radical individualism. It affirms that true human flourishing comes from recognizing the sacred worth of each person and building communities that foster mutual respect, love, and solidarity.

Modern Catholic social thought is a rich tradition that flows directly from the core teachings of the Gospels and the affirmation of human dignity.

At its heart, Catholic social teaching insists that every person is created in the image and likeness of God, possessing an inherent and inviolable dignity that must be respected in all aspects of life.

This principle is not just a philosophical abstraction; it is the foundation for a vision of society that values justice, solidarity, and the common good. The Church’s social doctrine calls for structures and policies that protect the vulnerable, promote the well-being of families, and ensure that all people—regardless of background or status—have the opportunity to flourish.​

Catholic social thought is deeply rooted in the life and teachings of Jesus, who consistently reached out to the marginalized, defended the poor, and called for compassion and justice. The Gospels inspire the Church to advocate for the rights of workers, to care for creation, and to build communities where every person is recognized and valued. Principles such as solidarity, subsidiarity, and the option for the poor are not merely Catholic concerns; they speak to the universal call to love one’s neighbor and to work for a world where justice and peace prevail.​

This tradition is not limited to Catholics. Its emphasis on human dignity, justice, and the common good resonates with Christians of all denominations and with people of goodwill everywhere. Catholic social teaching invites all Christians to reflect on how their faith calls them to act in the world, to challenge injustice, and to build communities that reflect the love and compassion of Christ. By centering on the dignity of every person and the transformative power of the Gospel, modern Catholic social thought offers a vision that is both deeply Catholic and profoundly ecumenical—a call to action that transcends denominational boundaries and speaks to the heart of Christian discipleship.

The modern Christian progressive moment is a dynamic movement that reimagines faith for the complexities of contemporary life, emphasizing a methodology rooted in questioning, inclusivity, and social transformation.

At its core, progressive Christianity is not defined by a single denomination or creed, but by a shared commitment to re-examining tradition, embracing diversity, and centering the ethical teachings of Jesus—especially love, justice, and compassion.

This movement draws from a range of theological streams, including liberation theology, feminist theology, and process theology, and is characterized by a willingness to challenge inherited doctrines and adapt to new cultural realities.​

Progressive Christianity’s methodology is marked by a deep engagement with scripture, but not as a literal or inflexible rulebook. Instead, it treats the Bible as a living text, open to interpretation and contextualization.

Reason, experience, and dialogue are valued alongside tradition, allowing for a more nuanced and evolving understanding of faith. This approach encourages believers to ask difficult questions, to listen to marginalized voices, and to seek truth in both ancient wisdom and modern experience.​

Underlying principles include a strong emphasis on social justice, care for the poor and oppressed, environmental stewardship, and the affirmation of human dignity for all, regardless of gender, race, sexual orientation, or background. Progressive Christians often advocate for systemic change. They believe that the Gospel calls for bold, proactive engagement with issues like poverty, inequality, and climate change, and that the Church’s mission is to be a force for healing and reconciliation in society.

By prioritizing love, justice, and inclusivity, the modern Christian progressive moment offers a vision of Christian spirituality that is both deeply rooted in the Gospel and responsive to the needs of our time.

The Celtic Christian tradition is a distinctive stream of Christianity that emerged in the British Isles—especially Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and parts of England—from the 3rd to the 12th centuries. Unlike the centralized, hierarchical model of Roman Christianity, Celtic Christianity developed organically within tribal and clan-based societies, emphasizing local monastic communities, a deep connection to the land, and a mystical, earth-honoring spirituality. Its roots lie in the blending of ancient Celtic customs with the teachings of the Gospel, resulting in a faith that was both indigenous and deeply Christ-centered.​

Methodologically, Celtic Christianity is marked by its emphasis on community, nature, and the sacredness of everyday life.

Monasteries, rather than cathedrals or bishoprics, were the heart of the tradition, serving as centers of learning, prayer, and evangelization. These communities were often founded by local saints—sometimes members of the local nobility—who established spiritual kinship networks that stretched across the land.

The Celtic approach to theology and practice was less concerned with rigid dogma and more focused on lived experience, storytelling, and the integration of faith into daily rhythms.​

A key methodological underpinning of Celtic Christianity is its embrace of the sacred in the ordinary. The tradition sees God’s presence in nature, in community, and in the cycles of life, rather than confining the divine to formal liturgy or institutional structures. This is reflected in its rich use of poetry, art, and symbolism—which express spiritual truths through beauty and creativity.

Celtic spirituality also values silence, contemplation, and the practice of hospitality, seeing these as pathways to encounter the divine.​

Another distinctive feature is its openness to the wisdom of other traditions and its emphasis on inclusivity. Celtic Christianity often incorporated elements of pre-Christian Celtic belief, reinterpreting them through a Christian lens. This syncretism allowed for a more flexible and adaptive spirituality, one that could speak to the needs and experiences of diverse communities.​

In summary, the Celtic Christian tradition is characterized by its organic, community-centered, and nature-affirming approach to faith. Its methodology prioritizes lived experience, creativity, and the integration of the sacred into everyday life, offering a vision of Christianity that is both deeply rooted in the past and profoundly relevant to contemporary spiritual seekers.